Broadcasting Innovations

COMMERCIAL radio broadcasting in the United States began just fifty years ago, in 1920. By 1925 there were 3 million radios in American homes. By 1940 these had increased to over 45 million, and now there are an estimated 275 million radios in the United States. That is more than one radio per person! Indeed, radio broadcasting has been an anchor of the oldest technology of information sharing in history. In Australia there is a unique system of broadcasting.As in most other countries, however, there is the usual commercial broadcasting arrangement, Australia having more than one hundred commercial radio stations. Since the stations are dependent upon the advertisers, the advertisers to a great extent determine the type of program. When the programs are slanted toward the majority preference, the quality can deteriorate. Today, as technology opens up its doors to wider array of choices, radio broadcasting systems has also been subjected to the huge changes.As the Internet becomes wid ely available to almost everyone in the world, it is also a challenge for radio broadcasting companies to create organizations available through the said innovative design of technology. One of the questions needed to be considered regarding this issue is the possibility of putting up a virtual radio broadcasting company. Truly, a physically structured broadcasting company has a better chance of being controlled.On the other hand, a virtual broadcasting company has a wider scope of audiences, making it possible for broadcasting activities to reach a wider array of listeners thus making the broadcasting activity more feasible and effective in many terms. In terms, a physically structured broadcasting company is beneficial, but a virtual company would be more effective for a broadcasting job to reach the vast population who would find it interesting to appreciate the service offered by broadcasting companies.Surely, broadcasting companies who would accept to face the challenge of crea ting a virtual company should gain necessary knowledge on the applications needed to pursue such an organization. Bibliography Sterling Quinlan. Inside ABC: American Broadcasting Company's rise to power. Hastings House. Hilary Potkewitz. (2005). Coming together: networks dive into new media formats. (American Broadcasting Companies Inc. ties up with Apple Computer Inc. ). Thompson Gale.

Climate Change and Its Consequences

Climate change and its consequences have recently grown in importance on political agendasworldwide. CO2 emissions is one of the gases that has a dramatic impact on the environmentresulting in rising coastal flooding, reduction in water supplies and increase malnutrition(IEA, 2010). In order to protect the environment for future generations, a global reduction inCO2 emissions is required along with reduced consumption of non-renewable energyresources. One major CO2 contributor is the transport sector, which is responsible for arounda quarter of EU greenhouse gas emissions, making it the second biggest greenhouse gasemittingsector after energy. While emissions from other sectors are shrinking, those fromtransport have increased by 36% since 1990. As a consequence, the European Union has setmandatory emission reduction targets for passenger cars of 95g/km by 2020, which is areduction of 40% compared to 2007. Automobile manufacturers that fail to comply facedrastic fines. In order to reach these targets and prevent penalty payments for excessemissions, innovative propulsion systems have gained increasing attention. Vehicles withelectric propulsion are considered as a promising alternative on the pathway towards lowemissionvehicles that could enable the transport sector to reduce emissions significantly.During the last few years, electric vehicles (EV) got more and more attention in national andEuropean policies and public awareness increased significantly. While much effort has beenput in the research and development of e-mobility, less attention has been paid to consumers'acceptance (Yeh, 2007). The majority of consumers still consider EVs as disadvantageouscompared to traditional cars. However, without consumer acceptance there will be notechnological shift and long-term success of sustainable transport systems (Wiedmann et al.,2011). Therefore, it is crucial to gain in-depth insights in consumers' perception towards EVsthat affect preferences for and the adoption of alternative fuelled vehicles.

Different reasons why people communicate Essay

1.1 Identify the different reasons why people communicate Communication and relationships represent one of the most important characteristics of working with others, adults and children. There are a variety of reasons why people communicate, mainly: -Building relationships: the first thing that will happen when I first meet a new child, parent, colleagues, is some form of communication. This might be a smile, wave or a linguistic form of salutation. By those first form of communication I begin to build a relationship. -Maintaining relationship: I keep building relationships with children and adults to create a trusting relationship. -Gaining and sharing information: I need to gain and share info in work non only with children and their families, but also with colleagues and managers. This will help in the way that I work and problem solving -Expressing needs and feelings: we as human beings all need to express our needs and feelings and also be there to allow children to do the same. 1.2 Explain how communication affects relationship in the work setting it is essential to establish good relationships with all the people I daily deal with. Good communication skills are related to strong relationship with children, parents, colleagues and other adults. We need to communicate to share and gain information, like routine info about how a child is feeling, play interests or health and welfare. Communication is fundamental to gain parents confidence and trust in us and make them feeling comfortable with us. It’s hard but necessary to be able to quickly find ways of communicating with them and building relationship, for example in a settling in context. A good quality of communication, then, allow a child to feel relaxed and play and learn more effectively. When I can communicate effectively I’ll help to build vocabulary to allow expressing themselves. Communication it’s furthermore important in the case of a child transition to  another classroom or school: the main aim is trying to pass all the info related to the child so to allow other people to build relationship as quickly as possible. Communication, finally, is essential to my relationship with all my colleagues, to work well together it is essential to communicate in a strong and professional way. 2.2 Describe the factors to consider when promoting effective communication To promote effective communication it is essential to choose which communication method to use and the right style of communication: face to face interaction, phone conversation, sign language, written communication (emails, reports), gesture, picture of children in action. It’s useful to consider the environment in which the communication happen to be: it’s better to communicate with adults in a quiet place or create a cosy and homely place to establish relationship with children. Another important factor is represented by the distance between me and the person I’m communicating with. Being very close to a child can be very useful but not as much as if I don’t know the child of if he/she is shy. Posture is important as well (e.g. standing at the same level of a child while communicating with him). 3.1 Explain why people from different backgrounds may use  and/or interpret communication methods in different ways. When people share more or less the same cultural background and the more or less the same experiences, they interpret things in a similar way and this make communication much easier and avoid misunderstandings. This is easy and happen naturally in a family context, but normally the people I daily communicate with comes from a different culture, background and linguistic knowledge. In my Italian culture e.g. it’s important and natural to associate verbal communication with gesture, or in the Chinese culture eye contact is interpreted differently. We build our way of communicating by learning from our parents or family background so mine is culturally far from an English speaking family and far from a bilingual speaking family e.g.. this means that I have to be careful and cannot take for granted that my viewpoint of style of communication will always be effective. It’s important to consider different backgrounds, beliefs and individual values  and respect them so to develop the confidence to express themselves freely and make choices. 3.2/3.3 Identify barriers to effective communication and the ways you would overcome these. Language difficulties: different mother tongue represent an important barrier to effective communication, both in oral or written form. I personally try to study English every day and to learn how to communicate effectively in this language. I’m very interested in different culture and always try to learn some word of the other language a child can speak or being able to understand (French, Spanish, Japanese e.g.) Inappropriate method of communication: difficulties in choosing appropriate words or language, inappropriate style or tone, illegibly writing, choosing to write a letter instead of having a word†¦ I think it’s very important to consider each and every situation and the kind of relationship I might have with the people I’m dealing with so to choose the best method of communicate and make it effective. All the barriers related to the transfer of communication: background noise, unreceived mails†¦I make sure that the passage of a message to another adult or child is done in an effective way, checking feedbacks and if one of those condition  are  present: hearing impairment; visual impairment; disability/learning difficulties. 3.4 Demonstrate strategies  misunderstandings  that  can  be  used  to  clarify  paraphrasing and reflecting to check understanding; apologizing; simplifying language. 3.5 Explain how to access to extra support or services below to enable individuals to communicate effectively (translation  services, interpreting services, speech and language services, advocacy services) There are a number of services that can be accessed to support communication, including: Interpreters or Translators when we need to support foreigners; Signers to support deaf people; Advocators. These services can be utilized by educational and health services through a booking system. Local authorities also have access to a team of specialists, such as Speech and Language therapists. Support can also be found on the internet through various specialist websites, including The British Deaf Society and The National Blind Children’s Society. Information on how to access to help can be found on internet, but also in clinics and libraries. There is also a range of specialist equipment, like induction loops, Braille embossers and printers. As a nursery assistant, if I feel that a child is in need of extra support, I will refer him/her to my manager. Having explained my concerns, she may choose to observe the child herself. If she felt it was necessary she would then book any support services that may be required. 4.1 Explain the meaning of the term confidentiality Confidentiality means not sharing information about people without their knowledge and agreement, and ensuring that written and electronic information cannot be accessed or read by people who have no reason to see it (using a password protected computer which is only accessed by named staff members and viewed by appropriate officials like Ofsted and parents). So, you cannot tell anyone what you’ve been told by a teacher, a student or a parent unless you have their permission, knowledge or if you think that the child is going to be in danger.  Confidentiality includes respecting other people’s rights and keeping safe the information that they have provided. In such a workplace as a Nursery it is easy to come to know personal things we are not supposed to. For example, a child may tell us something private, not understanding we should not know it. It is our duty to keep the information for ourselves. However, in the setting there is a Policy about the privacy which is to be read and signed by all members of staff and, of course, respected too. 4.3 Describe the potential tension between maintaining an individual’s confidentiality and disclosing concerns While parents and children have the right to confidentiality there are occasion when the need to maintain confidentiality might be breached. If I have concerns that a child is being abused, I must disclose this information to the Manager, unless I think that by disclosing the information I will put the child in further danger. Being it very hard to work out such a decision, sharing the concerns with a trusted colleague could help a lot. In case the Manager doesn’t see any abuse where I clearly see it, I will continue to keep an eye on the child I think has been abused and whenever I feel the child is in significant danger, I will report immediately to the Manager again and, in case of necessity, to the owner of the setting. UNIT 068 1.1 Explain each of the terms: speech; language; communication; speech,  language and communication needs Speech is the vocalized form of human communication, based upon the syntactic combination of lexical and names that are drawn from very large vocabularies. Each spoken word is created out of the phonetic combination of a limited set of vowel and consonant speech sound units. These vocabularies differ creating the existence of many thousands of different types of languages. Most human speakers are able to communicate in two or more of them. The vocal abilities that enable humans to produce speech also  provide humans with the ability to sing. A gestural form of human communication exists for the deaf in the form of sign language. Speech in some cultures has become the basis of a written language. Language is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system. In addition to its strictly communicative uses, language also has many social and cultural uses, such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as for social grooming and entertainment. Communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. It is the meaningful exchange of information between two or a group of living creatures. Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes. Speech, language and communication needs it’s a term used to refer to any difficulty that a child has in any of the three areas, e.g. difficulty in producing certain sounds (speech). 1.2 Explain how speech, language and communication skills support each of the following areas in children’s development: learning; emotional; behaviour; social. Speech, language and communication skills support: learning development because they help a child to understand what is being seen or provide a way for the child to communicate what he/she has seen. Babies use sounds and  facial expressions to communicate needs and express themselves. Toddlers use words and gestures to make connections and develop their knowledge and understanding. Pre-school children ask questions and make sense of the responses, they use words to express their ideas and develop their understanding; they support emotional development because controlling emotions is a large part of emotional development and if children become frustrated, angry or jealous and can’t communicate their feelings they may have a tantrum. But as their skills develop they can name their emotions and find other ways of expressing them, so babies use sounds and facial expressions to develop an attachment and relationship with their main carers, toddlers use words and body language to express their feelings and preschool children use speech and language to express their feelings and exert their independence; they support behaviour because once a child understands language they can begin to understand the consequences of their actions and start to think things through, becoming less impulsive and they support social development as children can start to recognise how others feel by watching their body language and listening to what they say and learn to adjust their behaviour accordingly. Children also start to understand social codes and how to behave appropriately. So, babies use sounds and facial expressions in responding to adult interactions, toddlers use words and gestures to interact with others and pre-school children use speech and language to interact with others and develop friendships. 1.3 Describe the potential impact of speech, language and communication difficulties on the development of a child, both currently and in the longer term.  Such difficulties may have an impact on a child overall development both currently and in  longer term. Currently, because a child may not follow the expected pattern of development for communication finding it difficult to communicate with carers and peers and causing him to become frustrated and show negative behaviour, anger, lack of confidence, find it difficult to form  relationships, to learn process and apply new information and find it hard to be understood by others. The children may have social problems struggling to communicate with peers leading them to avoid joining in with certain activities or leading them to play on their own affecting their social development. In the long term it can cause continued communication problems, low self-esteem, reduced life chances, finding it hard to make and maintain relationships, feeling isolated and excluded, not being able to be independent, develop antisocial behaviour. It is surely very important to be able as a carer to recognize as early as possible the presence of symptoms of such difficulties in order to intervene promptly and give more chances to the child. 2.1 Explain the ways in which adults can effectively support and extend the speech, language and communication development of children during the early years: – the words and levels of language adults use with children (including the use of questions) One of the skills to acquire is to quickly work out the level of language we need to use with children and also the style we need to adopt. Adults seem automatically to be able to change the structure of their language when working with babies in order to simplify it, this seems to be particularly important so that babies can focus on the key words in a sentence and so begin to associate these words with meaning. Questions play an important part in stimulating and extending children’s speech, they can show children that we are interested in what they are doing or thinking. Rhetorical questions are useful when working with babies and toddler, but are not helpful with children who already have speech as they simply deny children the opportunity to answer. – informations and activities used Planning activities or using books will prompt children speech, although it is always important for adults to build on children’s existing interests as well as providing new things for them. – their conversations/interaction with children  children who have speech need time to chat to adults, most children like to  be doing something or have something to show the adult for the conversation to take place. This often require the adult to sit down at their level. Good conversation do not work when the adult is moving and cannot make eye contact or is distracted. For babies and toddlers early interaction is often playful, including songs and rhymes. – work with parents/carers Parents/careres often have a strong relationship with their children and they’re able to tune into them and adapt their language. This means that parents have the potential to be brilliant language partners for their children, where a child has a specific speech and language need, both setting and parents will need to work together with a speech and language therapist. 2.2 Explain the relevant positive effects of adult support for the children and their carers: – speech, language and communication skills Children can show progress in their speech, language and communication skills if high quality support is given, working with them can be very rewarding and parents are often delight by the improvement that their children are showing. – social interaction positive support can make a child more outgoing ans also confident in their interactions. Once children have more speech and language they are able to play more easily with other children. – behaviour  many children who are finding it difficult to communicate and speak will show aggressive, uncooperative and frustrated behaviour. Being able to communicate effectively can make and enormous difference to children’s behaviour. – emotional development/self confidence positive aldult support also helps children’s emotional development. Not only do children become more confident, they also find through words ways of controlling their emotions and expressing their needs. 2.3 Explain how levels of speech and language development vary between children entering early years provision and need to be taken into account during settling in and planning. Every child is unique. It is obvious then that when they enter the nursery they will not be at the same level of development, not necessarily at least. We all know that some children start to speak at the age of 12 month while others will walk at 9 months, but others may take longer to start doing both activities. It is very important to help children settle in since their learning opportunities are amplified when children are confident, happy, motivated, engaged and supported in their play and exploration. For these reasons planning for children’s needs is a requirement of each setting and is an effective way to support children’s developing communication, speech and language needs. To help children settle in we need to take into account how much stimulation and encouragement they have experienced, what is their first language spoken at home, if there are any individual speech, language or communication needs/difficulties/gaps. That is why when entering the setting all parents are asked to fill in a form for their child where they have the opportunity to give us information about their child’s needs and requirements. To help a child settle in, it is also very important to be aware of his/her self-confidence, self-esteem, ability to settle. Moreover, facilitating communication between children helps with understanding each other, forming positive relationships, and demonstrates ways each can utilise negotiation and conflict resolution by waiting, listening and expression. 4.1 Explain the importance of the environment in supporting speech, language and communication development Communication friendly spaces are essential to help children develop their speech and language and these spaces should be made available both indoors and outdoors. Such spaces should be ideated thinking to reduce noise and distractions to a minimum otherwise the children cannot concentrate (for example the book area). The area should have sunlight to maximise the use of light and enable young babies or toddlers to see your face and how we use facial expression (particularly important if you have a child with an  hearing impairment or while working with babies that do not speak yet so that are not able to use language to communicate). You should consider the impact of the colour to reflect on a child’s emotions, a good colour is yellow since this colour is recognised faster than any other colour, evokes spontaneity, is joyful, optimistic, warm and signifies communication. Our rooms have a different colour each one and one has, as a dominant colour, red and I find it a bit ove rwhelming, while the other two rooms are light blue and light grey and you feel more relaxed in them. In the book corner we have a nice shelf with different age/stage books in; we also have some very nice musical stories that come with books with illustrations and that children really love a lot. We then have a soft box where we keep soft toys and puppets we use for singing time and to mime. All these materials are always kept at children’s keep so they can help themselves, this enables the area to be inviting for the children.

Roc of Ages Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Roc of Ages - Essay Example To my surprise, my first period teacher revealed the identity of the mystery man when she announced that she was sure we had all met the doorman, Roc. "Don't try to skirt the dress code" she explained. "And don't be late. Roc likes punctuality". According to the school board classification Roc was the custodian, but as time passed she said we would come to view him as much more than just a simple janitor. She had no reservations in informing us that Roc was not only here to restore order to the mess left behind by students with social skills still stuck in elementary school, but he was also here to teach a class that wasn't offered in any classroom. That subject was humility, humanity, and modesty. I panicked. I wasn't even prepared for biology, much less a class taught by a one armed custodian, not even on my schedule as to where or when it met. As the first year progressed, I did however, have many opportunities to attend Roc's classes. He was assistant coach for the football team, throwing and catching with one arm as great as Johnny Unitas. He held class in the hallway, on the football field, and at the front door. I was surprised to learn he had a degree in animal psychology and was always willing to be a tutor for any needy student.

OXIDATION OF METHIONINE BY SINGLET OXYGEN Essay - 1

OXIDATION OF METHIONINE BY SINGLET OXYGEN - Essay Example Transition metal complexes as photosensitizers 16 Semiconductors 17 Immobilized photosensitizers 17 Methionine oxidation 18 Determination of singlet oxygen 21 Aims 24 Materials and methods 25 General Information 25 Oxygen measurements 25 Singlet oxygen consumption at different methionine concentrations 26 Singlet oxygen consumption induced by laser. 27 Results and discussion 27 Conclusions 47 References: 49 Abstract The methionine oxidation reaction using singlet oxygen was studied. Initially this report is focused on presenting the overview of works associated with the topic. Singlet oxygen is described along with the ways it is formed. It was highlighted that singlet oxygen was a more powerful oxidant then triplet oxygen and the types of oxidation pathways are described. The practical aspect of this research is focused on using a photosensitizer, Rose Bengal, to generate singlet oxygen. This is the reason for giving a short overview of photosensitizers is given making focus on the behaviour of Rose Bengal and compounds similar to it in structure. Methionine oxidation mechanism is also described as well as function of oxygen electrode. In order to research the topic of methionine oxidation by singlet oxygen two experiments were carried out. In the first experiment a series of methionine solutions with different concentrations were prepared. In each case Rose Bengal was added as a photosensitizer. As it was established, the rate of oxygen consumption depends on methionine concentration in the solution being the highest at the lowest concentration of methionine. The process was followed by Michaelis-Menten kinetics therefore the corresponding equations were used to construct Lineweaver-Burke plot and determine the maximum rate of the oxidation reaction as well as the line slope. The second experiment utilised a more vigorous approach. A laser pulse was employed to produce singlet oxygen molecules in the dye containing methionine solution. And by employing various concentrations of methionine and Rose Bengal as photosensitizer construct oxygen consumption plots along with determination of variation of centre-of mass d istance and potential energy of the reacting molecules. Methionine oxidation was also described using SPARTAN calculations and the reaction mechanism was presented. This report is initially focused on describing the key literature associated with oxidation of methionine by singlet oxygen, highlighting relevant for the project issues and arguments, then moving on to presenting the research that has been done so far, making accent on the methods used and results achieved, before finally identifying the existing gaps in the study and setting up a plan for future work. Introduction Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1775 (Priestley, 1775). Later, Avagadro described the diatomic nature of oxygen, and the paramagnetic properties of this diatomic gas were studied by Faraday in 1811. Differences between oxygen and other gases such as helium or nitrogen were also investigated (Parkes, 1967). Later in 1928, using molecular orbital theory, it was established that oxygen is paramagnet ic due to the presence of the parallel spins of two electrons occupying the outer shell. This form with uncoupled electron pair was named triplet oxygen. Spectroscopy was used to prove the existence of higher energy state, which later was called singlet oxygen (Herzberg, 1934). In the singlet form of this molecule outer-shell electrons are paired in antiparallel spins. Initially, the importance of singlet oxygen was not recognised. It was rediscovered in 1964 in photooxidation experiments and since then became intensively studied. Over the past twenty five years significant increase in data regarding singlet oxygen has led to the

Google Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Google - Research Paper Example Termed as â€Å"BackRub† initially, this search engine was refined and modified. It later led to the creation of the company that the world admires today; Google. Google started operations from Susan Wojcicki‘s garage at 232 Santa Margarita, Menlo Park. The initial funds for the company were provided by Sun co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim. Larry and Sergey, the co-founders, hired their fellow graduate at Standford, Craig Silverstein, as their first employee. There has been no looking back ever since. By mid-1999, the company had, led by venture capitalists Sequoia Capital and Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers, completed a $25-million round of equity funding. In May 2010, the first 10 language versions of Google.com were released. The search engine was now available in French, German, Italian, Swedish, Finnish, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Norwegian and Danish. By September, Google had started offering search in 15 languages including Chinese, Japanese and Korean. In February of 2001, the company acquired Deja.com’s Usenet Discussion Service, an archive of 500 million Usenet discussions. The company opened its first international office in Tokyo in August 2001. By the end of the year, index size of Google grew to 3 billion web documents. In May 2002, Google inked a deal with AOL that enabled it to offer search and sponsored links to as many as 34 million customers who used CompuServe, Netscape and AOL.com. Google continued its inorganic route to expansion and acquired Pyra Labs, the creators of Blogger, in February 2003. One of the most important acquisitions of the company has been that of Applied Semantics, whose technology immensely bolstered Google’s content-targeted advertising service named Adsense. Google made its initial foray into the domain of social networking when it launched Orkut in January 2004. A couple of months later, the company moved to its new abode â€Å"Googleplex† at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway in Mountain View. In October 2004, the company acquired Keyhole, a digital mapping company. It was Keyhole’s technology that later helped Google launch Google Earth. By February 2005 Google had 1.1 billion images indexed. A month later, the company acquired a web analytics company, Urchin, whose technology is behind Google Analytics. The acquisition spree continued for Google in 2006 as it acquired dMarc, a digital radio advertising company in January, Writely, a web-based word processing application in March and JotSpot, a collaborative wiki platform in October. The company continued to expand its reach as it forged an alliance with China Mobile in January 2007. The deal enabled Google to provide mobile and Internet search services in China. The same year in June, the company announced a partnership with Salesforce.com, clubbing the latter’s on-demand CRM applications with its own AdWords. In September 2009, Google acquire reCAPTCHA, a technology company focused on Optical Character R ecognition (OCR). Picnik, a site that enables users to edit photos in the cloud, without leaving the browser, was acquired in March 2010. In February 2011, a new search algorithm that has a bearing on 11.8 percent of queries was refined to give better search results. Earlier this year, Google launched Google +, the company’s latest foray into the world of social network

Fictional story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fictional story - Essay Example Since he looked hopeless and pathetic, the Holmes were happy that he could help them with some homework. They hoped to keep him so that they could also send him for errands and leave them at home looking after the kids. â€Å"How much will you be paying me for the responsibilities?† asked John, â€Å"we do not have to pay you, that will compensate for the accommodation and food that we will be giving you.† Upon hearing this, John was annoyed. He started complaining and even almost insulted the Holmes for their lack of concern for him. It took the intervention of Julieta, a woman who personally knew John in the village. Since he had no other place to go, he had to accept the deal with the Holmes. Life at the Holmes was a bit challenging. He was forced to wake up early and slept late. Although he did not spend not even a cent of his savings, he did not earn anything except food and accommodation benefit. This infuriated John and made him confront the Holmes on the second day, â€Å"This is too unfair! I have to leave you alone with your pathetic offers.† John had started imagining that everything would work out well for him and that he no longer needed Holmes’ help. He even accused the Holmes of misusing him and vowed to sue them by the end of the week. This is despite the fact that he had personally agreed to the initial deal of staying with them and doing what the family does for no pay. Outside the Holmes, life was not as he had expected. It reminded him of his school days when he solely depended on his peers. When he was in class five, he had entered into a peer gang that taught him many ‘skills’ including what he referred to as ‘taking what others had misplaced.’ The only thing that kept John away from stealing is the memory of his late father who had died while John was twelve. John had not seen his father since birth and only spent three months with him before his death. As his mother had earlier narrated to

Islam Why the suicide bomber decides to do it Essay

Islam Why the suicide bomber decides to do it - Essay Example Suicide Bombing is a type of guerilla warfare, in which the suicide bombers blew him self and kills the other people along with him. This tactics is not only used by males, but now there females also who are becoming suicide bombers These suicide attacks are not new. They have started since 80's, being used by different religions. But if you look pro 9/11, the Muslims are carrying most of the suicide attacks. Suicide attacks are not only being used to kill the non-Muslims only, the Muslims have used suicide bombing to kills each other as well. It has been being used in Shia-Sunni conflicts, the two major sects of Islam. They have blown suicide bob in each other's mosques. However, such attacks have decreased since 2006. But the concept of suicide bombing has taking another face. Now days, theses attacks are used to kill the ones who are helping the Western world in war against Islamic extremists, and the Main country which has being affected from this approach is Pakistan, which has being a strong ally of US against war against terror. Whenever, someone hears about a suicide attack, some simple questions arise to mind of everyone that, what makes a person become suicide bomber What did the suicide got from this Why does he like violence Well in order to get the answers, we need to understand their background. Lets take the current situstion in Afghanistan. ... From this point, they start hating the humans especially the Whites. These people lose all their hopes and start hating themselves. They leave everything, start getting training from the militant organizations, where the concept of jihad against the War On Terror (WOT) troops is put in their minds. They are assured that after their martyrdom, their military organizations will look after their families. Most of the suicide bombers are young people mostly in their early 20's. They opt to become suicide bombers because it can be executed easily, the chances of getting caught is less, success is for sure and it is quite effective, it require cheap weapons, it is difficult to stop and it can kill many people from one shot. If we conclude all this, it can be said that their surroundings, all that happens with them makes them become suicide bombers. Probable Reasons for Suicide Attack in Muslim World: Now let us looking where are these suicide attacks are common and probable reasons for that. If we see recently, the countries where these attacks are taking place are Afghanistan, Iraq, Palestine and Pakistan. Lets us discuss the current political situation in these places. The reasons for suicide attacks seems to be quite obvious in Afghanistan and Iraq, these both these countries have been invaded by US army and there are military troops from different countries supporting US in their WOT. There is political disorder in these countries. The objectives of suicide bombers are to kills the troops so that there governments announce withdrawal of their troops, to do maximum damage to the troops as the people of these countries have nothing to lose. If we look the situation in

The impact of spray location on coated granule quality Essay

The impact of spray location on coated granule quality - Essay Example It is used for several purposes including granulation, coating, drying, and pelletization.(Teunou and Poncelet; Yang et al.; Olsen "Batch Fluid-Bed Processing Equipment - a Design Overview: Part I,") In the food industry, fluidization is used in freezing and cooling, freeze drying, puffing, classification, blanching, and cooking.(Dewettinck and Huyghebaert) Essentially, fluidized bed coating entails the introduction of granules into a coating cell and fluidization by air flow. The coating substance is sprayed through a nozzle with the aim of achieving a homogenous layering of the coating material on the granule. The process may be done as a batch or continuous one. Current industry trends favor the use of the continuous process over the batch process, in order to optimize efficiency of operation, and consistency of product quality.(Teunou and Poncelet) In the food industry, granule coating can be used to prepare encapsulated powders which separate reactive components in a mixture, mask unpleasant taste or flavor, protect unstable ingredients from degradation by environmental factors, reduce hygroscopicity, or provide controlled release.(Teunou and Poncelet) It also produces modified flow, compression, dust reduction and density properties in the coated products.(Teunou and Poncelet) The method has been used to encapsulate enzymes, labile proteins, yeast and aromas in polysaccharide matrices and for film coating of extruded products by lipids, resins, or proteins.(Teunou and Poncelet) Maa et al. reported the coating of lactose granules with recombinant human deoxyribonuclease using spray coating technologies.(Maa, Nguyen and Hsu) In food processing, The applications of fluidized bed coating in the food industry have been reviewed by a number of authors.(Dziezak; Arshady; Duxbury and Swientek) A recent review by Werner et al. looked at the current state of the art with respect to air-suspension particle coating in the food industry.(Werner et al.) In the pharmaceutical industry, fluidized bed coating is utilized in the facilitation of delayed, sustained or controlled release; selective enteric release, masking of taste, stability to degradation, and pharmaceutical elegance.(Dewettinck and Huyghebaert) Explanation of different spray location technologies There are three classic geometries for spray coating location: the top spray, bottom spray (or "wurster" spray), and tangential (or side) spray with rotating disk(Olsen "Batch Fluid-Bed Processing Equipment - a Design Overview Part 2"; Yang et al.). Top-spray Method The oldest spray location technology is the top spray method, in which the spray nozzle is located atop the fluid bed chamber, and the sprayed droplets move countercurrently to the air flow.(Yang et al.) It was developed from the older fluidized bed dryers.(Dewettinck and Huyghebaert) It involves the acceleration of granules from a container past a nozzle which sprays the coating countercurrently on the fluidized particles.(Dewettinck

Pro Genetically Modified Foods Essay Example for Free

Pro Genetically Modified Foods Essay We must have science to make medicine. All of us have been to the doctor to get medicine at least once in their lives. Think about how many people would die each year if it weren’t for modern day medicine; a lot, right? So it’s safe to say that some of us trust in medicine but not the science of genetically modifying foods? Believe it or not, genetically modifying foods has been around for thousands of years. â€Å"About 8,000 years ago, for example, farmers in Central America crossed two mutant strains of a weedy-looking plant called Balsas teosinte and produced the first corn on the cob. † (http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/harvest/engineer/) Without GM foods, farmers would be using more pesticides to keep their crops fresh. Scientists have created pest resistant plants that require fewer pesticides and grow faster. Along with being more cost efficient for farmers, the farmer’s use of fewer pesticides has been thought to be safer for consumers and for the environment. â€Å"How is the environment affected by pesticides? † After the rain comes and washes all the pesticides on the crops away the chemicals run off into the ground water and the water becomes contaminated. Then the animals of the surrounding area consume the water and then become sick and eventually die. If corn were not genetically modified, many crops would die as a result of pests and poor resiliency to changes in the weather. One of the biggest pathogens for corn is said to be the European corn borer. Because this insect subsides inside of the corn husk, pesticides do little to fix the issue. As a result of reduced production of corn, produce prices would become inflated and many people could no longer afford to buy it.

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War?

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War? Introduction Undoubtedly, the twentieth century could be counted as the bloodiest in human history; man has been at war for much longer than he has been at peace. The death tolls are incalculable although historians put estimates at somewhere between 170 million to 210 million. No true figures are available but what is undisputed is the proliferation and effect of war on all aspects of society. Its impact on the soldier and the civilian as well as the economy and society or culture has given birth to the concept of ‘total war’  (Marwil, 2000). The last time total war was experienced was the Second World War which invariably led to the Cold War and its all-encompassing nature on every aspect of society  (Stavrianakis & Selby, 2012). Particularly with technology, the 20th century has seen the advancement of technology to epistemic levels where it has produced the concept of ‘modern war’ – atomic weapons, satellite guided missiles, chemical and biological weapons and electronic drones; none of which have eclipsed the older forms of warfare  (Barkawi, 2011). A new form of warfare has evolved and it is part of the 4th Industrial Revolution; it is cyber warfare. To understand its significance, one only has to look at former President Barack Obama declaring the digital infrastructure of the US as strategic national asset to be protected with the entire resources available to the United States. Obama prompted the formation of a special unit in the Pentagon called Cybercom whose sole purpose is to prepare the US for the inevitable cyber war that America will be embroiled in. The UK has also set up the National Cyber Security Programme and NATO has released the Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare; a three-year study by international scholars setting out ninety-rules to govern conflicts among nations. Cyber warfare is definitely gearing up as a new arena for conflict. This dissertation looks at the subject of cyber warfare and examines how widespread a concern this is to nations and if indeed it is just a concern of the super powers. Just like atomic weapons has become a military weapon of magnitude, the world has still not experienced a nuclear war. Instead nuclear energy is being used to advance economies and aid production and meet energy needs. Is cyber space similar to the threat of nuclear weapons? Does it actually do more good that the proposed harm that is being touted? This dissertation will carry out a secondary data analysis to understand the current literature on the subject and determine if indeed cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Narrative The organising principle of every theme in this dissertation is layered; each begins with a general historical and contextual appraisal invariably moving to specifics and constantly looking at the problem-solution dilemma. To substantiate or clarify explanations, arguments, themes, findings etc., footnotes will be included and/or non-integral citations will be used to focus attention more on the research being discussed and less on the researchers or authors. All related studies to this dissertation will be research/information prominent. With a few exceptions, English is used entirely in this dissertation and therefore tense usage is important in the organisational narrative. Where reference is made to a single study, the past simple tense will be used. Where reference is made to more than one study or an area of research, the present perfect tense will be used. Where reference is made to generally accepted knowledge, particularly with respect to cyber warfare or generally accepted knowledge in international relations, information technology or geopolitics, the present tense will be used. Finally, the choice of reporting verbs in this dissertation will inadvertently express a certain attitude be it critical distance, doubt, certainty, confusion etc. As much as possible, I have tried to maintain the same reporting verbs used in citing research and evoking emotion in my reflexive thoughts. Sometimes this has not been possible and the same reporting verb will express different attitudes depending on the context. Where this has occurred, I have elaborated any misconception or misunderstanding in the corresponding footnotes. Themes and concepts The chronological order of the table of contents gives a straightforward description of the chapter and sub-chapter headings in this dissertation. Thematically, the dissertation is divided into 4 chapters. Chapters 1-3 deal with the research justification as well as academic and methodological underpinnings. These chapters set the terms of reference for the dissertation and elaborate its research direction and deal with the subject matter, cyber warfare. Chapter 4 deals with the results, discussion of the results and conclusion. Theoretical and conceptual framework War, Conflict and Anarchy It is imperative to understand international relations and the theories and concepts underpinning them before looking at cyber warfare as a new arena for war. The Melian Dialogue in the great 5th century BC classic of Thucydides’ â€Å"History of the Peloponnesian War† best describes the context in which one looks at the international system. At a point in the Peloponnesian Wars, the Athenians wanted to take over the neutral island of Melos to obtain control over the Aegean Sea. An Athenian fleet was dispatched to Melos to try and negotiate a surrender and the ensued dialogue, as told by Thucydides, captures the essence and birth of our international system today. The Athenians declared to the Melians that â€Å"since you know as well as we do that right, as the world goes, is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.† (Thucydides) The international system today is premised on the fact that nation states can and do exert their power over weaker states although some do work through a collaborative system to ensure a common purpose. The study of international relations begins with the very notion that there is no central authority which acts as the ultimate arbiter in world affairs. Nations simply do what they can through mutually beneficial alliances and discard them when their interests are no longer served. If we look at world history before the 20th century, international relations could be said to be in a state of anarchy as there was no central figure. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Despite China being a hyperpower for 800 years, there is no record of any central authority governing the behaviour of nation-states. They simply did what they could to nations who couldn’t fight back. Ironically China was insular and did not engage in any international conflicts. Every study of international relations or politics beyond that makes assumptions about the state of anarchy and offers a counter explanation of an international system with inter-state relations and a hierarchical intrastate system. A system that we have now with bodies like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization regulating economic relations and the International Criminal Court prosecuting crimes against humanity.   International relations deals with how nation states decide to exist without a central authority or with no structure or how they choose to create one. Waltz (1979) describes the juxtaposition of the international system and the domestic system by explaining that   domestic systems are centralized and hierarchic†, international systems are decentralized and anarchic†Waltz 1979, p. 88 All approaches to international relations and studying the behaviour of nation-states begins with an assessment of the anarchic structure in the international system. Anarchy is the starting point of viewing international relations but that view depends on the perspective a country chooses to take. Let’s begin with the oldest view recorded since the Melian dialogue between the Athenians and the Melians. The ‘political realist’ perspective is known as a theory one subscribes to in international relations. A political realist is under no illusions that countries behave with the single purpose of self-interest and therefore actions and reactions are done to defend that interest. Nation states are geared towards survival, according to the realist and this can often mean exerting strength over a weaker enemy or acceding to a collaboration with a stronger foe. All is done for the purpose of ensuring the continuation of the state by any means necessary. Therefore, the only way to predict behaviour is to predict survival. Realists do not see a set of behavioural guidelines but a survival of the fittest in the ‘international jungle of world politics’. Or as one might put it succinctly, ‘might is right’. To the realist, the international order is that of ensuring that power relations are conducted in such a manner that outcomes are mutually exclusive. One party will always gain over the other so the purpose for the nation-state in any negotiations is to be the winner. Where this cannot be achieved then the realist will view this as a precarious position to be in. Realists’ view of the anarchical order can describe the behaviour of nation-states in various ways from the classical realist to the neorealist and several forms in between. Whichever view is subscribed to, anarchy forms the basis of that world view and the expected behaviour of nation-states  (Heginbotham, 2015). Liberalist recognise the importance of anarchy in the international system in just the same way as the realists. Both liberal and realist accept the absence of a supreme authority directing the affair of nation-states. Where liberals and the liberal view differ on the subject is what can be done within the anarchic system. Liberals believe that nation-states and state actors can actually come together to build rules, guideline, set up institutions and appoint various monitoring bodies to govern or at least modify the behaviour of nation-states so that they can work together for a common person  (Barkawi, 2011). Outcomes do not have to be mutually exclusive but can be mutually beneficial in an anarchic system, according to the liberal view of international relations. Through joint cooperation, liberals believe that the behaviour of nation-states can be changed to achieve a level of power where states feel secure about their relationships with other states and do not seek to consolidate power at the expense of others. This classical liberal view can be seen in the world today as neoliberalism. Liberals still see anarchy in the international system but see it as something that can be overcome through a concerted effort. Whatever view one prescribes, the prevailing wisdom is that nation states will shift between theories and concepts to advance their own agenda and not confine themselves to an enduring guiding principle. The concept of cyber warfare, I would argue, follows suit. Defining the cyber world Almost twenty-five years ago, ‘cyberspace’ as we know it did not exist beyond the primitive computers placed in research laboratories and academic institutions. In fact, cyberspace was merely a theoretical concept that was considered unachievable. Today that has drastically changed. Our world would be unfathomable without cyberspace. To put its vastness into perspectives, approximately 4 billion people are online with roughly 50 billion devices ranging from super computers to desktops to laptops to smartphones to tablets. On a yearly basis, 90 trillion emails are sent and two trillion transactions are conducted in cyberspace (Turns, 2012). Cyberspace permeates are lives so much that we use it for everything from international trade, to logistics, communications, record keeping, financial transactions to sending flowers! All these positive contributions are the benevolent side of cyberspace. The malevolent aspect of cyberspace is ignored by the public unless a scare or scandal brings it to the surface. Figures estimate that on a daily basis, around 55,000 pieces of malware are found, 200,000 computers are ‘hijacked’[1]as well as the countless number of frauds that go unreported. How exactly does one define cyberspace? That question is not easy to answer as there are as many answers as there are experts in the field. A notable expert worth considering is Daniel Kuehl who collected a series of definitions from various sources and analysed his findings  (Curran, et al., 2008). He concluded that cyberspace consisted of a few dimensions namely; An operational space – it is an operational space where proponents of the domain ply their trade and perfect their skills. An electronic domain – it is an electronic network comprising of computers and a vast network of electromagnetic activityInformation domain – it is a network of information that is not limited to a particular location, time and space Kuehl analysed all these aspects and offered his own definition which will be used in this dissertation: â€Å"A global domain within the information environment whose distinctive and unique character is framed by the use of electronics and the electromagnetic spectrum to create, store, modify, exchange and exploit information via interdependent and interconnected networks using information-communication technologies.†Kuehl, 2009 Cyber terrorism is a portmanteau of the words cyberspace and terrorism and was first recognised and used in 1996 but became popular after a 1998 report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies titled Cybercrime, Cyberterrorism, Cyberwarfare: Averting an Electronic Waterloo. The report discussed the possibilities of an electronic attack, likely outcomes and expected methods  (Carr, 2011). Three terms are often confused when discussing Cyber terrorism so it is crucial that they are defined here. Cyber terrorism: â€Å"It is premeditated, politically motivated attacks by sub national groups or clandestine agents, or individuals against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in violence against non-combatant targets (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Information warfare: â€Å"It is a planned attack by nations or their agents against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in enemy losses (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Cyber crime: â€Å"Cyber crime is a crime committed through the use of information technology (Colarik & Janczewski, 2008).† This is more of the documented cyber related terms because it has received adequate coverage due to its proliferation in domestic law enforcement. In the U.S., the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act defines Internet criminal acts (Jensen, 2009). Furthermore, the â€Å"European Union members of the NATO alliance have domestic laws implementing the 1995 E.U. Data Privacy Directive† (Knapp & Boulton, 2006). For argument’s sake, cybercrime includes offences such as; the impairment of data, misuse of devices, interception of data offenses. traditional criminal offenses facilitated through the use of the internet, e.g. fraud, copyright infringement, child pornography Cybercrime has received a lot of international attention and was formally discussed at the Council of Europes 2001 Convention on Cybercrime  (Robinson, et al., 2015). This convention is still the only international understanding in place that exclusively focusses on cybercrimes. Terrorism: â€Å"The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons (Dragan, et al., 2012).† Research Approach Research Questions This research will attempt to explore and answer three questions regarding the broad themes that preliminary research has shown and in line with the gaps in current academic research; What exactly is cyber space?Is an information war a ‘war’ in the conventional sense?Is Russia engaging in a cyber war with the West? The dissertation considered various approaches to address the questions above as well as examine different options such as sources of data, type of research framework, timescale and methodology. In trying to answer any of the research questions, it was clear that any primary data used to carry out the research and with the available time limit would not be possible or indeed produce valuable information. This dissertation needed to design an analytical framework to counter this problem. Thus, I attempt to make a justification for carrying out secondary analysis of qualitative data and the benefits and limitations of the approach Secondary Data Collection In setting about the data collection, it was imperative I included boundaries for the study, the protocol for recording the data as well as the methodology for analysing it which are all set out below. The secondary data included qualitative documents and qualitative audio and visual materials. The list of secondary evidences kept evolving and the research continued. However, below is the final list of secondary evidences used. Data from various government departmentsNews articles from newspapersData and analysis from periodicals, books, journals etc.Data from non-governmental agencies and public bodiesData from online sources Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data Secondary data analysis is essentially re-analysis of data collected by another researcher (Elliot, 2015). Andrews et al gave a definition of secondary data analysis as the collection and use of previously collected data for another purpose  (Andrews, et al., 2012). In addition, they also explained that the use of secondary data analysis first appeared when one of the founders of Grounded Theory (Glaser) discussed the possibility of re-analysing data that had already been collected for other purposes (Andrews, et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, secondary analysis is still not very popular and there have been very limited reviews of its use (Hinds, et al., 1997). At this point, it is pertinent that a distinction be made between secondary analysis, documentary analysis, systemic reviews and meta-analysis. Secondary data analysis is the examination of primary data[2] from previous research studies. Such data would include examples such as semi-structured interviews, research diaries, responses to open-ended questions in questionnaires, transcripts of interviews/conversations etc. On the other hand, documentary analysis would involve the analysis of data such as auto-biographies, personal diaries, photographs etc. Heaton does point out that there could be some considerable overlap between secondary analysis and documentary analysis (Heaton, 2008). Meta-analysis and Systematic Reviews both involve both involve going over published findings of previous research studies unlike secondary data analysis that looks at the primary data and not just the published findings. Review & Discussion Introduction Cyber warfare has different definitions depending on which theorist is applying it and which country is examining and applying the concept; for example, the U.S. military view cyber warfare in very different terms from the Russians. To begin with the word â€Å"cyber† is a completely new phenomenon that arose after the dot com boom and the start of the 4th Revolution. Not surprisingly, it has not filtered into the established rules of war or armed conflict adhered to by other nation states  (Chen, 2010). For starters, the word â€Å"cyber† is not found in the 1949 Geneva Conventions and any of the additional Protocols (it has not been inserted there). The word, in common usage, relates to a whole host of things ranging from computers and their networks to the information in these computers to even the process of uploading and retrieving this information. By extension, the word cyber warfare will include acts committed in furtherance of any act against and adversary using everything that is considered part of the ‘cyber’ domain. In looking at acts, cyber warfare would include offensive acts, defensive acts or acts of deterrence. By this explanation, it will include disseminating offensive information through computers or computer networks  (Andress & Winterfeld, 2011). Cyber warfare is one that has no clear boundaries or actors which makes a lot of the current legislation unhelpful. Acts of war or states of war are usually assigned to recognised states and combatants. But in this case, cyber warfare can be conducted by states, agents of states, non-state actors, international groups or any collection of people with a single vested interest or even one individual  (Cornish, et al., 2010).   Cyber Warfare and the legal question This dissertation started off with trying to determine if cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Even though I have attempted to define ‘cyber’ and ‘cyber warfare’, there are still large parts of this area of study that need to be examined. A lot of the current research already makes the assumption that cyber warfare is warfare because of its obvious name or that a few of the permanent members of the UN Security Council are making the case. But what is the legal argument to justify treating cyber warfare as warfare? Let’s begin with the least disputed agreement and definition of what leads to armed conflict. It is generally accepted that â€Å"armed force† is the necessary requirement for â€Å"armed conflict†. The UN Charter Article 2(4) provides, All members [of the UN] shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State . . .,. Exceptions are use of force authorized by the Security Council, and self-defence pursuant to Article 5 1.† Even customary law that applies to non-UN members still has the expectation of the same necessary requirement although it must be pointed out that this is only applicable to state actors (Kelsey, 2008). Non-state actors where not envisioned when the Charter was framed. Nonetheless, this is still the legal argument as it stands. Cyber warfare does not seem to meet the threshold of ‘armed force’ although many would argue otherwise. And it is this argument that is usually translated into the foreign policy of some states  (Gompert & Libicki, 2014). Even the UN Charter Article 51 still proposes that a response to attack is only justified if the initial or first attack is an armed attack. As it stands today, cyber warfare is not recognised as a legitimate war just in the same way that the ‘War on Terror’ is not a legitimate war but a cornerstone of US foreign policy. By extension, it stands to reason that a cyber attack is not in reality an attack recognised by the UN (Droege., 2012). Ultimately the view of whether an act is a cyber attack or part of cyber warfare is merely one that is only determined by the recipient of the act and how they choose to respond; through dialogue or retaliation? In addition, the judgement of the international community plays a significant part even though state actors often form alliances that ensures that an attack on one nation state could be an attack on the entire alliance; e.g. a cyber attack on a NATO member state. Not having a legal basis for an action does not in any way imply that it is not treated as a conflict or war. We only have to look at the U.S. justifications for bombing, Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria in clear violation of the U.N. Charter; none of these states had perpetrated an armed attack against the U.S. The international community enjoined the U.S. even though other states had pointed out at the clear hypocrisy being committed by the U.S. If one is to consider cyber warfare and cyber attacks, then answering the legal question is insufficient. One must refer to the prevailing theory of international relations one subscribes to or comment on wider matters governing a state’s behaviour. This dissertation will look at empirical examples of cyber warfare. Global Cyber warfare: China vs US In todays information age, the Peoples Republic of China has replaced and even improved upon KGB methods of industrial espionage to the point that the Peoples Republic of China now presents one of the most capable threats to U.S. technology leadership and by extension its national security.Dan Verton, Cyber Warfare Expert (Hjortdal, 2011) It is easy to forget that in 1820, Greece had revolted against the Ottoman Empire, Britain had opened the first modern railway and was on its way to an exploding industrial revolution, Brazil had nervously declared independence from Portugal and that China was the world’s superpower with the largest share of global GDP. In fact, it is easy to forget because history has been written specifically to gloss over these facts. Western academia has repeatedly highlighted China as a collective of starved, dispossessed and slaughtered people and not a prosperous, dynamic and global power from 1100 – 1820. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Western imperialism and China’s decline has been documented in detail which this book cannot do justice to. The rise of Chinese economic and political strength is unquestionably due to the Communist Party of China which began when the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China adopted a reform policy triggering the private sector[3].   Since 1978, entrepreneurship has driven the Chinese economy and the economic and political changes since then remain unprecedented. So transformative has this change been that China is now a threat to the US in the information superhighway. A recent event in 2016 puts this threat into context. China builds world’s fastest supercomputer without U.S. chips â€Å"China on Monday revealed its latest supercomputer, a monolithic system with 10.65 million compute cores built entirely with Chinese microprocessors. This follows a U.S. government decision last year to deny China access to Intels fastest microprocessors. There is no U.S.-made system that comes close to the performance of Chinas new system, the Sunway TaihuLight. Its theoretical peak performance is 124.5 petaflops, according to the latest biannual release today of the worlds Top500 supercomputers. It is the first system to exceed 100 petaflops. A petaflop equals one thousand trillion (one quadrillion) sustained floating-point operations per second.†ComputerWorld (June 20, 2016 http://www.computerworld.com/article/3085483/high-performance-computing/china-builds-world-s-fastest-supercomputer-without-u-s-chips.html) It has earlier been argued that cyberspace is open to both state actors and non-state actors. Because actions can be taken by an individual in a state, it is extremely hard to prove culpability of the state. In other words, a cyber attack from a computer in China in no way implies that the cyber attack was orchestrated by the Chinese state. Proving culpability is extremely hard and this fact alone hinders the argument that cyber warfare could be a new arena of conflict. Having said this, the media is awash with stories of Chinese cyber attacks on the U.S. but it is always lacking in evidence. Ironically, one never hears of U.S. cyber attacks on China or at the very least the mainstream media never reports it. Despite China’s repeated denials of culpability and its demand for proof that its citizens are responsible for cyber attacks on U.S. interests, the U.S. have taken the bold step in 2011 to issue a statement from the National Counterintelligence Executive that China is the â€Å"most active and persistent perpetrator of cyber intrusions into the United States† (Heginbotham, 2015).    As there are no clearly defined rules on cyber warfare, any escalation of tensions between China and the U.S. could be construed and framed in the words of a potential conflict similar to the rhetoric that started and fuelled the Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. This Cold War metaphor is how commentators are viewing the Cyber race between China and the U.S. According to President Barack Obama’s 2011 Cyberspace Policy Review, â€Å"cybersecurity risks pose some of the most serious economic and national security challenges of the 21st century† (Solis, 2014). This rhetoric is backed up by the steps the U.S. has taken to secure its strategic advantage in the domain. In 2009, the U.S. created the Cyber Command under the National Security Agency (NSA) with the express purpose of putting cyber warfare in the forefront of its military and defensive strategy. In addition, the Department of Defence (DoD) also has the Pentagon Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace with China clearly set in its sights. These aggressive overtures by the U.S. have not been ignored. According to the Chinese Ministry of Public Security, they are of the opinion that cyber attacks on Chinese computer installations grow at a rate of 80% annually making China the largest and most venerable recipient of cyber attacks   (Robinson, et al., 2015). To put it into context, in 2011, China succumbed to a cyber attack where 100 million usernames, passwords and emails were leaked unto the internet. What is commonly acknowledge is that the U.S. practically controls the entire internet and other states are using every means possible to reduce the influence of that control and threat even though the US was instrumental in the development of the internet. For the global internet to be fully operational, it requires 13 root serves. 10 of the 13 are based in the US and the other 3 are based in Japan, Sweden and the Netherlands. ICANN, the body that authorises domain names and designations is based in the U.S. With these facts in mind, the U.S. has the most potential to turn cyber space into a cyber threat. At least that is the argument posed by China and they insist on being able to protect their national interests. With both sides staking a national interest priority, it is not surprising that cyber warfare could be the next arena between the U.S. and China (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). Global Cyber warfare: Russia vs the rest of the world The Russians view cyber and cyberspace in completely contradictory terms to the U.S. and the West in general. First and foremost, the Russians do not generally refer to the term cyber as a distinct concept in the way political theorists in the West do. Russia, and to some extent China, have a wider understanding of information and its control regardless of the medium chosen. So, given its long history with controlling information about and through the state during the era of the Soviet Union, electronic information is just one conduit or category of information that can be utilized, manipulated and harnessed for the greater good of the state. That is to say that the notion of cyber is just another mechanism by which information is relayed and does not take priority over other mechanisms in importance just in practical relevance. In Russian military doctrine, information and disinformation go hand in hand and are tools used by the state apparatus to achieve a desired objective for its citizens or against its adversaries. It is utilized with judicious foresight towards a purpose in addition to other traditional methods and processes. In practical terms, if information (or disinformation) helps another weapon to tool, then Russian military theorists see electronic information merely as an enabler or facilitator. Therefore information is relevant to already established practices of the state such as disinformation operations, electronic warfare, Psychology Operations (also known as PsyOps), political subversion and subterfuge, economic warfare etc. According to (Carr, 2011), â€Å"this is stated clearly in the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2010) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. features of modern military conflicts is the prior implementation of measures of information warfare in order to achieve political objectives without the utilization of military force and, subsequently, in the interest of shaping a favourable response from the world community to the utilization of military force.†Carr, 2011 Cyber warfare, according to Russian theorists, is just information warfare by another means but more efficient than other types of information warfare. Cyber warfare is a legitimate tool of the state, so the argument goes, in peacetime and in conflict. It does not hold a special prominence like it does in the U.S. Cyber warfare is regulated to accompanying other tools of the state but given its nature, it has no set rules, no boundaries, no prescribed limits and no real restrictions or applications. Such a view is diametrically opposite to that of the concept of cyberspace held in the West. In support of this theory, the Russian state apparatus is structured quite differently from the U.S. Cyberspace and cyber warfare started under the remit of the Federal Security Service (Federal’naya Sluzhba Bezopastnosti: FSB) which was tasked with initiating information and disinformation wars using whatever means necessary including cyber warfare. The FSB also maintains and controls SORM, the State’s internal cyber surveillance system. In addition to the FSB, The Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecommunications, Information Technologies and Mass Communications (Roskomnadzor), is also tasked with controlling the civilian media, telecommunications, the internet, the radio and any electronic media. Russia’s strategy of seeing cyber warfare as a continuation of normal political and military overtures was witnessed in the war with Georgia in 2008  (Robinson, et al., 2015). To date, Russia is still the only country to use all three of military, economic and cyber warfare on an adversary in the international arena. Russia had a two-pronged attack when it used military weapons and cyber warfare to defeat Georgia. Similarly, in its conflict with Ukraine in 2014, its conventional use of military weapons and cyber warfare resulted in Ukrainian government websites being shut down, massive ‘denial of service’ attacks being reported and energy installations being hacked into. This is the first of many of these sorts of ‘total warfare’ that will continue in the new future. One only has to read newspaper reports of cyber attacks occurring on a daily basis. But does this constitute a new arena of conflict? I think given what is already going on in conflicts around the world, the question has already been answered. Whether by design or accident, states are using cyber warfare as a tool against their adversary  (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). World’s first Cyber War No other body of research could be more persuasive that presenting details of the world’s first cyber war to support the argument that cyber warfare is now a new arena of conflict. The first known incident of an entire country being subjected to an all out cyber war was Estonia. To understand the gravity of this event is to look at the history of Estonia.   Estonia was controlled by the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years and obtained its independence in 1991. Then it was a desolate country which has been starved of infrastructure and economic development. With a population of just under 2 million, it has carved a future for itself as one of the most wired and technological advanced countries in the world. It is truly a model of a smart country with widespread ecommerce and e-government services almost unparalleled anywhere in the world. As a state once controlled by the Soviets until 1991, the country is punctuated with Soviet history and struggle. The capital city, Tallinn, had monuments erected to the Soviet soldiers who fought and died in the struggle to keep Germany out of Russia. Estonia, as it is their right, decided to move the monument to a cemetery which met angry objections from Russian leaders and the large Russian community that grew out of a 50 year occupation. Russia saw Estonia as a symbol of struggle and the Estonians saw Russia as a symbol of oppression. After altercations in the city centre following the removal of the monument, Estonia found that its entire electronic infrastructure was disrupted. The state administration was paralysed, banks and companies had to freeze their operations, the internet was practically down and nothing was working. Culpability was had to prove but it was the first recorded total cyber war against a state. Again, there is no proof that the perpetrators were state spon sored or indeed it was a malicious attack but the timing and the magnitude points to more than a criminal cohort (there was no financial advantage gained in the event) and to a state sponsored cyber attack. More importantly, Estonians pointed the finger at Russia and being members of NATO, they retained the prerogative to invoke Article 5 of NATO: an attack against one is an attack against all. Postscript If there was any uncertainty about cyber warfare becoming the new arena of conflict then the headlines below might seem ominous as they are similar to the headlines that preceded the First World War and the Second World War. And these were in just over 3 days. â€Å"Malta accuses Russia of cyber-attacks in run-up to election The embattled Maltese government has claimed that it has come under attack from a Russian-backed campaign to undermine it, amid worsening relations with the Kremlin. Malta assumed the presidency of Europe’s Council of Ministers in January, an important position under which it chairs high-level meetings in Brussels and sets Europe’s political agenda. Since then, the Maltese government’s IT systems have seen a rise in attacks, according to a source working within its information technology agency, a government body. He claimed the attacks, which have increased ahead of next month’s general election, are designed to damage the government. â€Å"In the last two quarters of last year and the first part of this year, attacks on our servers have increased,† the source said.†Ã‚  (Doward, 2017) â€Å"Trump executive order aims to protect US from ‘catastrophic’ cyber attack US President Donald Trump this month signed an executive order that aims to increase protection for US essential services in case of a cyber attack that results in catastrophic regional or national effects on public health or safety, economic security, or national security†. (Kuchler, 2017) Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US North Koreas main spy agency has a special cell called Unit 180 that is likely to have launched some of its most daring and successful cyber attacks, according to defectors, officials and internet security experts. North Korea has been blamed in recent years for a series of online attacks, mostly on financial networks, in the United States, South Korea and over a dozen other countries. Cyber security researchers have also said they have found technical evidence that could link North Korea with the global WannaCry ransomware cyber attack that infected more than 300,000 computers in 150 countries this month.   Pyongyang has called the allegation ridiculous. (Reuters, 2017) The research question of whether cyber warfare is a new arena of conflict is probably not in any doubt. The argument reverts back to the beginning of this research when examined the realist approach to international relations. Even if one were to look at the vast number of institutions in the international system and make a please for calmer heads prevailing, the realpolitik of current geopolitics shows that cyber attacks can, and will most likely, be used as a pretext and as a tool of war. It is no longer a question of if but when. Bibliography Andersen, P. H. & Kragh, H., 2011. Beyond the inductive myth: New approaches to the role of existing theory in case research. . In: R. Marschan-Piekkari & C. Welch, eds. Rethinking the case study in international business and management research. s.l.:Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, pp. 146-167. Andress, J. & Winterfeld, S., 2011. Cyber Warfare Techniques, tactics and Tools for Security Practitioners. s.l.:Elsevier Science. Andrews, L., Higgins, A., Andrews, M. & Lalor, J., 2012. Classic Grounded Theory to Analyze Data: Reality and Reffecions. Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal, June.11(1). Barkawi, T., 2011. From War to Security: Security Studies, the Wider Agenda and the Fate of the Study of War. Millenium: Journal of International Studies, Volume 39(Issue 3), pp. 701-716. Bernard, H. R., 2011. Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches.. s.l.:Rowman Altamira.. Carr, J., 2011. Inside cyber warfare: Mapping the cyber underworld. Sebastopol: OReilly Media, Inc.. Chen, T., 2010. Stuxnet, the real start of cyber warfare?. IEEE Network, Volume 24(Issue 6), pp. 2-3. Cobban, S. J., Edgington, E. M. & Pimlott, J. F., 2008. An ethical perspective on research using shared data.. Canadian Journal of Dental Hygiene, 42(5), pp. 233-238. Colarik, A. & Janczewski, L., 2008. Introduction to Cyber Warfare and. In: L. Janczewski & A. Colarik, eds. Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism. New York: Information Science Reference. Colarik, A. & Janczewski, L., 2012. Establishing Cyber Warfare Doctrine. Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 5(Issue 1), pp. 31-48. Cornish, P., Livingstone, D., Clemente, D. & Yorke, C., 2010. On Cyber Warfare. London: Chatham House. Corti, L. & Bishop, L., 2005. Strategies in teaching secondary analysis of qualitative data. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6(1). Curran, K., Concannon, K. & McKeever, S., 2008. Cyber Terrorism Attacks. In: A. Colarik & L. Janczewski, eds. Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism. New York: Infformation Science Reference. DeWeese, S., 2009. Capability of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to conduct cyber warfare and computer network exploitation. s.l.:Diane Publishing. Doward, J., 2017. Malta accuses Russia of cyber-attacks in run-up to election. [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/27/russia-behind-cyber-attacks-says-malta-jseph-muscat [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Dragan, M., Danko, M. & Mirjana, D., 2012. Defining Cyber Warfare. VojnotehniÄ ki Glasnik, Volume 60(Issue 2), pp. 84-117. Droege., C., 2012. Get off my cloud: cyber warfare, international humanitarian law, and the protection of civilians. International Review of the Red Cross,, Volume 94(Issue 886), pp. 533-578. Elliot, D. C., 2015. SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS. In: F. Stage & K. Manning, eds. Research in the College Context: Approaches and Methods. s.l.:s.n. Elman, C., Gerring, J. & Mahoney, J., 2016. Case Study Research: Putting the Quant Into the Qual. Sociological Methods & Research, 45(3), pp. 375-391. Fielding , N., 2004. Geting the most from archived qualitative data: epistemological, practical and professional obstacles. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 7(1), pp. 97-104. Gladstone, B. M., Volpe, T. & Boydell, K. M., 2007. Issues encountered in a qualitative secondary analysis of help seeking in the prodrome to psychosis. The Journal of behavioural Health Sciences and Research, 34(4), pp. 431-442. Gompert, D. & Libicki, M., 2014. Cyber Warfare and Sino-American Crisis Instability. Survival, Volume 56(Issue 4), pp. 7-22. Heaton, J., 1998. Secondary analysis of qualitative data. Social Research Update, Issue 22. Heaton, J., 2004. Reworking Qualitative Data. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Heaton, J., 2008. Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data: An Overview. Historical Social Research, 3(3). Heginbotham, E., 2015. The U.S.-China Military Scorecard Forces, Geography, and the Evolving Balance of Power 1996-2017, Santa Monica: The RAND Corporation. Hinds, P. S., Vogel, R. J. & Clarke-Steffen, L., 1997. The Possibilities and Pitfalls of Doing a Secondary Data Analysis of Qualitative Data Set. Qualitative Health Research, 7(3), pp. 408-424. Hjortdal, M., 2011. Chinas Use of Cyber Warfare: Espionage Meets Strategic Deterrence. Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 4(Issue 2), pp. 1-24. Hjortdal, M., 2011. Chinas Use of Cyber Warfare: Espionage Meets Strategic Deterrence. Journal of Strategic Security, Volume 4(2), pp. 1-24. Irwin, S., Bornat, J. & Winterton, M., 2012. Timescapes secondary analysis: Comparison, context and working across data sets. Qualitative Research, 12(1), pp. 66-80. Jensen, E. T., 2009. Cyber warfare and precautions against the effects of attacks. Texas law review, Volume Volume 88, p. 1533. Johnston, M., 2014. Secondary Data Analysis. A Method of which Time Has Come, Volume 3, pp. 619-626. Kelsey, J. T., 2008. Hacking into international humanitarian law: The principles of distinction and neutrality in the age of cyber warfare. Michigan Law Review, pp. 1427-1451. Knapp, K. J. & Boulton, W. R., 2006. Cyber-warfare threatens corporations: expansion into commercial environments. Information Systems Management, Volume 23(Issue 2), p. 76. Krasner, S., 1983. International Regimes. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Kuchler, H., 2017. Trump executive order aims to protect US from ‘catastrophic’ cyber attack. [Online] Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/1e46dd84-2422-11e7-a34a-538b4cb30025 [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Kuehl, D., 2009. From cyberspace to cyberpower: Defining the problem.. In: F. Kramer, S. Starr & K. Wentz, eds. Cyberpower and national security. Washington D.C.: Potomac Books Inc., pp. 24-42. Lagner, R., 2011. Stuxnet: Dissecting a cyberwarfare weapon. IEEE Security & Privacy, Volume 9(Issue 3), pp. 49-51. Lieberthal, K. & Singer, P., 2012. Cybersecurity and U.S.-China Relations. [Online] Availableat:https://www.brookings.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2016/06/0223_cybersecurity_china_us_lieberthal_singer_pdf_english.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2017]. Lindsay, J. R., 2013. Stuxnet and the limits of cyber warfare. Security Studies, Volume 22(Issue 3), pp. 365-404. Long-Sutehall, T., Sque, M. & Addington-Hall, J., 2011. Secondary analysis of qualitative data: A valuable method for exploring sensitive issues with an elusive population. Journal of Research in Nursing, 16(4), pp. 335-344. Mackenzie, N. & Knipe, S., 2006. Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology.. Issues In Educational Research, 16(2), pp. 193-205. Marwil, J., 2000. Photography at War. [Online] Available at: http://www.historytoday.com/jonathan-marwil/photography-war [Accessed 21 May 2017]. Nicholson, A. et al., 2012. SCADA security in the light of Cyber-Warfare.. Computers & Security, Volume 31(Issue 4), pp. 418-436. Palys, T., 2008. Purposive Sampling. In: L. M. Given, ed. The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Los Angeles: Sage, pp. 697-698. Reuters, 2017. Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US. [Online] Available at: http://www.skynews.com.au/news/world/asiapacific/2017/05/21/nth-korea-launches-cyber-attacks-on-us.html [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Robinson, M., Jones, K. & Janicke, H., 2015. Cyber warfare: Issues and challenges. Computers & Security, Volume Volume 49, pp. 70-94. Robinson, M., Jones, K. & Janicke, H., 2015. Cyber warfare: Issues and challenges. Computers & Security,, Volume 49(Issue 25), p. 70. Shakarian, P., Shakarian, J. & Ruef, A., 2013. Introduction to cyber-warfare: A multidisciplinary approach. Oxford: Newnes. Solis, G., 2014. Cyber Warfare. Military Law Review, Volume Volume 219, pp. 1-52. Stavrianakis, A. & Selby, J., 2012. Militarism and International Relations. In: A. Stavrianakis & J. Selby, eds. Militarism and International Relations Political Economy, Security and Theory. s.l.:Taylor and Francis. Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C., 2010. Sage handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research. s.l.:Sage. Tennis, J. T., 2008. Epistemology, Theory and Methodology in Knowledge Organization: Toward a Classification, Metatheory, and Research Framework. In Knowledge Organization, 35(2/3), pp. 102-112. Tesch, R., 1990. Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools.. New York: Falmer. Thorne, S., 1990. Secondary Analysis in Qualitative Research: Issues and Implications. In: J. M. Morse, ed. Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods. London: Sage. Turns, D., 2012. Cyber Warfare and the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities. Journal of Conflict and Security Law,, Volume 17(Issue 2), pp. 279-297. Van den Berg, H., 2005. Reanalyzing qualitative interviews from different angles: the risk of de-contextualization and other problems of sharing qualitative data.. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, , 6(1). Vasilachis De Gialdino, I., 2009. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations of Qualitative Research. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(2), pp. 1438-5627.. Wang, H. & Wang, S., 2004. Cyber warfare: steganography vs. steganalysis. Communications of the ACM, Volume 47(Issue 10), pp. 76-82. Wolcott, H. T., 2009. Writing up qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. [1] These are computers that have been hijacked and remotely taken over by a person other than the owner. [2] Primary data is that which is from a study where the researcher personally collects the information but secondary data is data that has already been collected (Andrews, et al., 2012). [3] From December 18 to 22, 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China was held in Beijing. The party decided that China should start shift its economic focus from class struggle-oriented to economic construction-oriented, from semi-rigid/rigid to comprehensive reform, and, from semi-closed/closed to opening up.Invalid source specified.

Structure And Function Of Skin Health And Social Care Essay

Structure And Function Of Skin Health And Social Care Essay Marty is a 2-year-old toddler brought into the Emergency Department by his distraught 16 year old single mother, Mandy. Mandy had been heating some chicken soup in the microwave in their council flat in Whitechapel, when her friend Tracey had rung Mandys mobile. Mandy left the boiling soup on the kitchen table leaving Marty alone in the kitchen. Mandy, hearing Martys scream, rushed back into the kitchen to find that Marty must have reached up and tipped the soup over himself mainly over his chest and torso. Mandy immediately removed Martys clothes, and wrapped him in a damp towel, and called for an ambulance. When Marty reaches the Royal London Accident and Emergency he is in considerable pain and is given an analgesic and started on intravenous fluids. Marty is assessed and found to have second-degree partial thickness burns over both of his upper arms and lower abdomen and second degree deep partial thickness burns on his upper chest. At the periphery of these second degree burns are first-degree burns with large blisters developing some of which have burst. In total approximately 30% of Martys BSA is affected. Mandy is distraught and wants to know if Marty will be scarred for life. Learning Objectives: The normal structure and function of skin Normal wound healing Burns Classification Treatments Stem cells Prognosis Social/Ethical/Legal issues Child abuse Normal structure and function of the skin Normal structure of skin The structure of the skin is divided into three layers, the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis. (Bardia Amirlak, 2011) (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011)http://www.discovercosmeticsurgery.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/skin-structure.jpg Source: (Discover Cosmetic Surgery, 2010) Epidermis Source: (Structure of the Skin)The epidermis is the uppermost layer of the skin and is avascular. It obtains its nutrients and oxygen from the underlying dermis through diffusion. The epidermis is subdivided into 5 layers the stratum basale which consists of basal (stem) cells and melanocytes, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum and the stratum corneum. It is made up of stratified squamous epithelial cells. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) (Bardia Amirlak, 2011)http://encyclopedia.lubopitko-bg.com/images/epidermal%20layer.jpg Skin cells are being reproduced constantly to replace dead cells (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011). The process is as follows: Each basal cell in the stratum basale Mitosis A cell that moves upwards to form part of the stratum spinosum. Basal (Stem) cell. This remains in the stratum basale. The basal cells found in the stratum basale divide repeatedly to produce a stem cell and another cell which matures and moves upwards towards the surface of the skin. They also become drier because they are moving away from the dermis which is the cells source of fluid. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) The stratum corneum cells are shed on a daily basis and new cells reproduced by the process below replace them. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) When the keratinocytes enter the stratum lucidum, they die due to apoptosis and the nucleus disappears. They form a layer of cells which is only observed in thick skin, for example, the palms of the hands. It is absent in thinner skin, for example, around the eyes. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) By the time the original cell enters the stratum corneum, it is a dead, dry, flat packet of keratin which contain no nucleus. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Source: (Dreamstime) Dendritic cells are found in the stratum spinosum which form an important part of the immune system. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Cells mature as they move towards the surface of the skin. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) In the stratum spinosum, the cell amasses lots of keratin which is a tough, fibrous protein to become keratinocytes. They also become drier and flatter as they mature and move upwards to form part of the stratum granulosum. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) The flat keratinocytes filled with protein granules form part of the stratum granulosum. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Cells divide by mitosis. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Melanocytes are also found within the stratum basale which produce melanin and this is responsible for a persons skin colour. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011)http://www.dreamstime.com/anatomy-of-the-epidermis-of-the-skin-non-labeled-thumb18513932.jpg Dermis The dermis is highly vascular and consists of many structures such as sweat glands, hair follicles, nerves, macrophages, dendritic cells and blood vessels. It is made up of collagen and elastic tissue. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) The dermis is subdivided into the papillary dermis and the reticular dermis. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011)http://virtual.yosemite.cc.ca.us/rdroual/Lecture%20Notes/Unit%201/FG04_07.jpg Papillary dermis consists of the dermis between the folds of the epidermis to a short distance beneath the papillae. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Source: (Integumentary System)The reticular dermis includes the rest of the dermis and contains most of the structures listed above. As illustrated, this layer consists of dense fibrous tissue. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Hypodermishttp://www.maharshiclinic.com/images/hypodermis.gif Source: (StudyBlue, 2010)The hypodermis lies underneath the dermis and is subdivided into two layers: a fat layer and a deep fascia layer. The deep fascia layer is made up of dense connective tissue and this encases the entire body. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Function of the skin The skin has many important functions:- Protection The skin acts as a barrier to environmental effects, such as abrasions, and microbes. (Keith L. Moore, Anne M. R. Agur Arthur F. Dalley, 2011) Containment It prevents dehydration by providing containment of all the tissues and organs of the body. (Keith L. Moore, Anne M. R. Agur Arthur F. Dalley, 2011) Heat Regulation The skin regulates body temperature using sweat glands and blood vessels by a process known as homeostasis. (Keith L. Moore, Anne M. R. Agur Arthur F. Dalley, 2011) Sensation Sensory nerve endings found in the skin provide sensation, for example, pain. (Keith L. Moore, Anne M. R. Agur Arthur F. Dalley, 2011) Vitamin D When light energy is absorbed, cholecalciferol or Vitamin D is synthesised in the skin. This promotes bone growth when metabolised and activated. (Keith L. Moore, Anne M. R. Agur Arthur F. Dalley, 2011) (R. Bowen, 2011) Normal Wound Healing When the skin is injured, for example, due to a burn, the cells undergo necrosis and die. They release enzymes which kill neighbouring cells and therefore, the damage spreads. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Wound healing consists of three phases (Clinimed, 2012):- Inflammation (Clinimed, 2012) Fibroblasts produce new collagen type III tissue. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) (SP Zinn)Proliferation (Clinimed, 2012) Maturation (Clinimed, 2012) Inflammatory cells accumulate on the surface and water evaporates from the extracellular fluid causing a scab to arise. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Granulation tissue is the accumulation of blood vessels, such as capillaries, and fibroblasts. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Collagen type III is remodelled into collagen type I which is much stronger. (CliniMed, 2012) Source: (Wound Care Solutions Telemedicine) During inflammation, there is an increased flow of blood to the injury site which brings white blood cells to destroy bacteria and remove any dead remains of cells. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Occurs over a long period of time. (SP Zinn)http://www.woundcaresolutions-telemedicine.co.uk/images/WoundHealingProcess.jpg A clot forms due to red blood cells and platelets being released. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Tissue healing takes place in the proliferative stage. It can result in complete regeneration if the stroma of the tissue is left intact. This means that a scar is not formed and the tissue can be restored to complete normalcy. However, if the stroma is distorted or damaged, then a mixture of regeneration and scarring will occur as the regenerating cells are not supported or directed appropriately. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Regeneration is also determined by the location of the injury. Tissue cells, for example, have many stem cells which allow them to undergo more successful regeneration compared to muscle cell which have a lower number of stem cells. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Maturation involves the remodelling of collagen fibres. This occurs over a long period of time and is only initiated after the wound has been closed. (CliniMed, 2012) Source: (CliniMed, 2012)Phases of Wound Healing Burns Classification A burn is defined as an injury resulting from exposure to heat, chemicals or radiation. (WordNet Search 3.1) The classification of burns according to the layers affected is as follows (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011): Type of Burn Regions Affected Sensation Appearance Example Time to Heal Superficial(First Degree) Burns Epidermis Painful Erythema, Swelling Sunburn Superficial Partial Thickness (Second Degree) Burns Epidermis and Papillary Dermis Painful, Sensitive to touch Formation of blisters Scalding due to boiling water 2-3 weeks Deep Partial Thickness (Second Degree) Burns Epidermis, Papillary Dermis and Reticular Dermis Painless (due to nerve endings being damaged) White or pale (due to lack of blood vessels) Fire burn 3-6 weeks Full Thickness (Third Degree) Burns All the layers of the skin Painless(due to nerve endings being damaged) Dry and leathery Directly exposed to flame Skin grafting needed to heal Fourth Degree Burn Skin and underlying muscle and bone Painless Dry and leathery, black or purple Electrical and severe thermal burns Hospital admission is required Source: (Medical Student LC), (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) (Marieb Hoehn, 2012) Burns can also be classified by the total body surface area affected: The rule of nines can be used to estimate the total body surface area affected by a burn. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) The total body surface area affected together with the patients age is used to calculate the severity of the burn and the volume of body fluid lost. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) (Marieb Hoehn, 2012) Source: (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Treatments First Aid The first aid for treatment of burns is as follows: The person must be removed from the source of burn as soon as possible. (NHS Choices,2012)(Dr Hayley Willacy, Dr Tim Kenny, Prof Cathy Jackson, 2012) Clothes or jewellery must be removed from the burning area. (NHS Choices,2012)(Dr Hayley Willacy, Dr Tim Kenny, Prof Cathy Jackson, 2012) The burn must be cooled for approximately 10-30 minutes using cool or lukewarm water only. It should then be covered but not wrapped, with clingfilm because it is sterile and doesnt stick to the burn. (NHS Choices,2012)(Dr Hayley Willacy, Dr Tim Kenny, Prof Cathy Jackson, 2012) (Bupa, 2011) The person must be kept warm to prevent hypothermia. (NHS Choices,2012) The pain can be managed with paracetamol or ibuprofen. (NHS Choices,2012) (Dr Hayley Willacy, Dr Tim Kenny, Prof Cathy Jackson, 2012) (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) First aid must be given to the patient as soon as possible to minimise the damage caused by the burn. (NHS Choices, 2012) Treatment for different types of burns The treatment given depends on the type of burn it is: Superficial (First Degree) burns Superficial burns are treated by cooling the burn with clean water and managing the pain with the use of analgesics (painkillers) or topical solutions such as aloe vera. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) Superficial burns do not result in deep wounds and blisters therefore, there is only a slim chance of infection. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) Partial thickness (Second degree) burns Partial thickness burns are treated in the same way as superficial burns. The first step in treating partial thickness burns is cleaning the wound with water and reducing pain and swelling with the use of analgesics. The next step is to use sterile gauze to cover the burn without breaking the blister to minimise the chance of infection. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) (Bupa, 2011) The skin layers can still regenerate after a partial thickness burn due to the stem cells present in hair follicles. (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) However, severe partial thickness burns, for example, burns covering a significant proportion of the body, require medical attention and are treated using (InjuryInformation.com, 2009): First Aid to clean the burn and prevent the chance of infection. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) Intravenous fluids to prevent excess heat and fluid loss which could lead to a decrease in blood pressure and shock. (Bupa, 2011)(Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Prophylactic antibiotics if the patient is suspected of being infected, prophylactic antibiotics are given to treat the infection. (Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, 2007) (Bupa, 2011) Analgesics Analgesics will be given, for example, ibuprofen, aspiring, paracetamol, to manage the pain. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) (Bupa, 2011) (NHS Choices, 2012) Skin grafts to reduce scarring. This is carried out for patients with severe partial thickness, full thickness and fourth degree burns to re-establish the surface of the skin because most of the basal cells have been destroyed. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) (Bupa, 2011) (Shabir Bhimji, VeriMed Healthcare Network David Zieve, 2011) There are four different types of skin grafts (Leah DiPlacido, 2010): Autografts The skin is taken from any part of the part of the patients body, for example, the buttocks. This is then spread over the wound and held in place using staples or stitches. (Shabir Bhimji, VeriMed Healthcare Network David Zieve, 2011) (Bupa, 2011) (Leah DiPlacido, 2010)The main advantage of autografts is that it is no issue of rejection because it is the patients own skin. Allografts The donor skin is from another person, usually a cadaver. However, the cells in the skin need to be alive when transplanted. The disadvantage of allografts is that the patients immune system will attack the allografts leading to rejection. Therefore, this is only a temporary form of cover. (Leah DiPlacido, 2010) Xenografts The skin used is from a different species, for example, a pig. It has the same disadvantage as allografts and eventually results in rejection, therefore, xenografts are also used as a temporary cover. (Leah DiPlacido, 2010) Synthetic Tissue Burns can also be covered using synthetic tissue which is synthesised in a laboratory. It is made of collagen and carbohydrate and is placed over the wound to allow the patients own cells to grow into this engineered skin. (Leah DiPlacido, 2010) Full thickness (Third Degree) and Fourth degree burns Immediate emergency attention is required for these burns as all the layers of the skin are destroyed. This also increases the likelihood of an infection and therefore, these burns are treated in a sterile environment. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) All full thickness and fourth degree burns require full-thickness skin grafts in which the transplanted skin includes the underlying muscle and blood supply. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) (Shabir Bhimji, VeriMed Healthcare Network David Zieve, 2011) An escharatomy is also performed in severe burns where the skin and tissue becomes inelastic and damages blood vessels thereby preventing circulation. Surgical incisions are made along the area of the burn to release the pressure of the skin and tissues so circulation can resume. (Jennifer Heisler, 2012) (Jama, 1968) There is a definite chance of scarring in full thickness and fourth degree burns because all the stem cells in the skin have been destroyed and regeneration cannot take place. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) (Thomas H. McConnell Kerry L. Hull, 2011) Prognosis The prognosis for burn patients is dependent on the severity of the burn and the total body surface area affected. (Considerations for burn patients) Social/Ethical/Legal issues Child abuse Responsibilities Child abuse is defined as the mistreatment of a child either physically, emotionally or sexually. (Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador) There are four categories of child abuse which are recognised: Physical abuse This form of abuse involves physical mistreatment of the child, for example, hitting, burning, poisoning, etc. (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny, 2010) Emotional abuse This form of abuse involves the emotional mistreatment of a child which could result in childs emotional development being affected. Some examples of this include: bullying, frightening a child, etc. (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny, 2010) Sexual abuse This form of abuse involves forcing a child to participate in sexual activity and also forcing him/her to look at sexual images etc. (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny, 2010) Neglect Neglect is defined as the failure of the parent or guardian to meet the basic physical and psychological needs of the child, for example, emotional neglect, failure to protect the child from danger, etc. (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny, 2010) Some of the symptoms of child abuse include: Withdrawal of child (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny,2010) Physical marks and bruises which indicate towards physical abuse or neglect (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny,2010) Overdose of toxic substances could indicate towards physical abuse (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny,2010) The child might be afraid of physical contact, etc. (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny,2010) If a child is suspected of being abused, the doctor should discuss the case with their colleagues and if necessary, the child and family should be referred to social services. If possible, consent should try to be obtained and the carer involved. However, if the doctor feels that the child is at immediate risk, then the emergency services must be informed immediately. (Dr Colin Tidy, Dr Naomi Hartree Dr Tim Kenny, 2010) Conclusion Looking at the scenario, it can be seen that Mandy carried out the correct first aid procedure by wrapping Marty in a damp towel as this will cool the burn and prevent the risk of infection. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) In A E, Marty was given the treatment required for the above burns, for example, analgesics and intravenous fluids. However, for the second degree deep partial thickness burns on his upper chest, he might require skin grafts from another part of his body such as the buttocks to minimise scarring and re-establish the growth of epidermis. (InjuryInformation.com, 2009) (Bupa, 2011) In conclusion, I think that Marty will recover fully with some scarring on the upper chest; however, he might need psychological support and counselling to help deal with the scars. Source: (Natalie Verney, 2012)As this is the first case of neglect, Marty must be observed to see if any such incident happens again. The social services can also be involved to help Mandy take care of Marty. She can also be advised to join support groups, for example, Netmums to help cope physically and mentally. http://www.heart.co.uk/u/apps/asset_manager/uploaded/2012/23/netmums-logo-1339067868.jpg